Majapahit Exile and the Balinese Kingdoms — 14th–19th Centuries

The decisive event that made today's Bali is the mass exile from the fallen Javanese Majapahit kingdom in 1527. With this single migration, the entire system of caste, names, temples, rituals, scripts, and literature settled in Bali (see 1.1.1). Then the unification under Gelgel in the 17th–19th centuries and the subsequent nine-kingdom era shaped the original template of today's nine Kabupaten (see 2.3.1). The roots of every tradition a foreigner meets in Bali trace back to this period.

A. Bali Before Majapahit (10th–13th c.)

Bali had kingdoms even before Majapahit. From the 9th to the 14th century, the Warmadewa dynasty ruled Bali from a capital at Singamandawa (now Pejeng·Bedulu). Sri Kesari Warmadewa (914 inscription) is the earliest named king.

In this period Bali already practiced a Hindu-Buddhist fusion religion. The religious culture of Javanese Sailendra and Mataram (see 1.1.1) of the 8th–9th centuries flowed in by maritime trade. Archaeological sites such as Goa Gajah (Elephant Cave, c. 850), Gunung Kawi (royal tombs, 11th c.), and Pura Penataran Sasih (Pejeng) are traces of this era.

A distinctive fact: the Balinese language (Bali Aga old Balinese) formed in this period. The current Bali Halus·Madya·Kasar honorific structure has its prototype in this era's Balinese (see 9.2).

Sources: Warmadewa dynasty · Goa Gajah · Gunung Kawi Temple

B. The Majapahit Conquest of Bali (1343)

In 1343, Gajah Mada, the chief minister of Majapahit (see 1.1.1), conquered Bali. The Balinese king Sri Astasura Ratna Bumi Banten was defeated, and a Majapahit governor was installed.

Rather than direct rule, Majapahit chose indirect rule by appointing Cri Aji Kresna Kepakisan — a Majapahit royal — as king of Bali. The capital was Samprangan (now Gianyar), later moved to Gelgel (now Klungkung).

This conquest brought the first influx of Majapahit culture:

• Wangsa (the four-caste system, see 4.2)
• Adat (customary law, see 4.4)
• Kawi (Old Javanese, see 9.3) — the language of religious and customary texts
• Wayang (shadow puppet theater) — the medium of religious narrative

But the indigenous Balinese (now called Bali Aga — villages like Trunyan·Tenganan·Sembiran) rejected Majapahit culture and kept the older Balinese rituals. To this day, these villages show differences in Mahabharata, no Wayan-Made names, distinct mortuary practice (Trunyan), and more.

Sources: Gelgel Kingdom · Bali Aga · Trunyan

C. 1527 Exile — The Decisive Moment of Balinese Hinduism

When the Demak Sultanate destroyed Majapahit in 1527 (see 1.1.1·1.1.2), Majapahit's royalty, priests, artists, scholars, and craftsmen migrated en masse to Bali. The following migrated with them:

• Religious system — Pura·Banten·Canang Sari·Odalan (entire Part 3)
• Caste system — Brahmana·Ksatria·Wesia·Sudra (4.2)
• Naming system — Wayan·Made·Nyoman·Ketut (4.3.1)
• Customary law — Adat·Awig-awig·Banjar (4.1·4.4)
• Literature and art — Wayang·Topeng·Legong dance
• Architectural code — Asta Kosala Kosali (6.5)
• Calendars — Pawukon 210-day and Saka (3.3)

Bali already had its older Bali Aga Hindu tradition, but with royal patronage, the Majapahit migrants institutionalized and systematized a Balinese Hindu — Agama Hindu Dharma Bali (3.1.2) — that was established here.

In particular, Dang Hyang Nirartha (1489–1550), a Majapahit-origin priest, is credited in this era with fixing the locations of Bali's six great temples (Sad Kahyangan) (see 3.2.1). Pura Uluwatu, Pura Tanah Lot, Pura Rambut Siwi, and others are attributed to him.

Sources: Nirartha · History of Bali

D. The Gelgel Golden Age (1500–1665)

Soon after the exile, the Gelgel kingdom (now Klungkung) unified Bali, Lombok, and parts of eastern Java. The reign of Dalem Baturenggong (1550–1580) was the golden age. The classical era of Balinese culture — Wayang, Legong, literature — bloomed.

Gelgel's administrative structure:

• Dalem (king) — supreme. Klungkung royal house
• Patih (chief minister) — Brahmana origin
• Punggawa (lord) — regional overseer
• Perbekel (village head) — village unit
• Banjar (self-governing village) — lowest unit (see 4.1)

The Banjar-level self-governance survives as the core of Balinese society today (see 4.1). Villages were not the lowest administrative unit of the kingdom but quasi-independent bodies with their own constitutions (Awig-awig) — a remarkable feature.

In 1665, internal strife in Gelgel fractured the kingdom, dispersing into the nine kingdoms.

Sources: Gelgel Kingdom · Dewa Agung

E. The Nine-Kingdom Era (1665–1908)

After Gelgel's split, Bali divided into nine kingdoms. These nine kingdoms are the original template of today's eight Kabupaten + Denpasar Kota (see 2.3.1):

The nine-kingdom era was an age of war. The Gelgel successor Klungkung held the ceremonial supreme authority, but actual military power was independent in each kingdom. In the 19th century, northern Buleleng grew wealthy from maritime trade, and southern Badung steadily rose. This fragmented state later became the opportunity for the 1846 Dutch invasion (see 2.2.2).

Sources: List of historical kingdoms of Bali · Buleleng Kingdom · Badung Regency

F. The Legacy of the Kingdom Era

Three legacies of the nine-kingdom era (1665–1908):

1. The original template of administrative regions — direct succession from 9 kingdoms to 9 Kabupaten + 1 Kota (see 2.3.1)
2. Banjar self-governance — the fragmentation strengthened village-level autonomy. The reason village customary law is stronger than national law today (see 4.1)
3. Decentralization of court arts — each kingdom developed its own painting and dance styles. Ubud and Batuan painting schools (see 5.3.3), Klungkung Kamasan painting, Karangasem-Lombok styles, and so on

The reason rituals, dialects, and cuisine differ subtly by region in Bali today began with this nine-kingdom split.

Sources: Vickers A., A History of Modern Indonesia (Cambridge, 2013); Geertz C., Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali (Princeton, 1980)

Quick Summary

Sources / References

• Wiki — History of Bali · Gelgel Kingdom · Nirartha · Bali Aga · Warmadewa dynasty
• Official — Museum Bali (Denpasar) collection · Pura Besakih official · UNESCO Cultural Landscape — Bali Province
• News — The Jakarta Post — Balinese royal descendants' events · Yonhap — Korean documentaries on Trunyan·Tenganan
• Academic — Geertz C., Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali (Princeton University Press, 1980); Vickers A., Bali: A Paradise Created (Tuttle, 2nd ed., 2012); Hauser-Schäublin B., Traditional Indonesian Polities and the Postcolonial State (Routledge, 2013); Reuter T. A., The House of Our Ancestors (KITLV Press, 2002)