Independence War and Sukarno — 1945–1967
A four-year war of independence after the 1945 declaration, the 1949 transfer of sovereignty, the failure of parliamentary democracy, Guided Democracy from 1957, the 30 September 1965 incident and the 1965-66 mass killings, and the 1967 transfer of power.
On 17 August 1945, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta's declaration of independence marked the end of 342 years of colonial rule — but it was not yet the start of the nation. The Netherlands refused to recognize sovereignty and launched a four-year war; afterward came two more decades of turbulence: failed parliamentary democracy, Guided Democracy, the 30 September 1965 incident, and the mass killings. This period — sometimes called the Sukarno era — is the formative phase of Indonesian national identity.
A. The War of Independence (1945–1949)
In September 1945, British forces escorted Dutch troops into Jakarta. The November Battle of Surabaya — a six-day clash between British forces and Indonesian youth militias — became the spark of the war of independence. Every 10 November is now observed as Heroes' Day (Hari Pahlawan).
The war was not a conventional military conflict but a mix of guerrilla, diplomatic, and international-opinion warfare. The Dutch launched two major offensives under the name Politionele Acties (Police Actions) in 1947 and 1948. During the second, Sukarno and Hatta were captured at Yogyakarta.
Turning the tide of international opinion — The Truman administration's threat to tie Marshall Plan aid for the Netherlands to its refusal to grant Indonesian independence applied decisive pressure. The Round Table Conference (The Hague) on 27 December 1949 formally transferred sovereignty.
Casualty estimates for the war: Indonesian 45,000–100,000, Dutch ~4,500.
Sources: Indonesian National Revolution · Battle of Surabaya · Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference
B. The Failure of Parliamentary Democracy (1950–1957)
The post-independence years (1950–1957) are known as the Liberal Democracy period. Government was so unstable that seven prime ministers rotated over seven years. In the first general election of 1955, the four parties PNI (Sukarno's National Party), Masyumi (Islamic), NU (Nahdlatul Ulama), PKI (Communist) split the vote four ways, producing a fragmented parliament with no majority.
Regional rebellions piled up. Darul Islam (an Islamic-state movement, 1948–1962), PRRI/Permesta (military revolts in Sumatra and Sulawesi, 1958), South Moluccas (the RMS secessionist movement) all unfolded in parallel. In November 1957, an assassination attempt on Sukarno occurred.
Sukarno concluded that parliamentary democracy did not suit Indonesia and proclaimed Guided Democracy (Demokrasi Terpimpin) in 1957. Parliament was weakened, and direct presidential rule was strengthened.
Sources: Liberal democracy period in Indonesia · 1955 Indonesian legislative election · Darul Islam (Indonesia)
C. Guided Democracy and the Sukarno Era (1957–1965)
Guided Democracy was framed as the political embodiment of Pancasila (see 1.2.1). In substance, it was a system in which Sukarno balanced three power centers — the presidency, the military, and the PKI.
Foreign policy was anti-imperialist and non-aligned. The 1955 Bandung Conference — a gathering of 29 newly independent Asian and African nations — gave Indonesia global standing as the launchpad of the Non-Aligned Movement. The 1963–1966 Konfrontasi — military confrontation with the newly formed Malaysia — also belongs to this period.
Domestically, the economy was in crisis. Inflation in 1965 was over 600%, GDP growth was negative, and foreign reserves were depleted. American and Western aid had been cut off, and Indonesia relied on China and the USSR.
The PKI had grown into the world's largest non-ruling Communist party (estimated 3.5 million members). That balance collapsed on 30 September 1965.
Sources: Guided Democracy in Indonesia · Bandung Conference · Konfrontasi
D. The 30 September Movement (G30S/PKI)
On the night of 30 September 1965, officers from the Cakrabirawa (presidential guard) abducted and killed seven army generals. Six died instantly; one (General Nasution) escaped. The bodies were thrown into a well at Lubang Buaya (Crocodile Hole) — a famous image of the event.
Who orchestrated the action — whether a PKI coup attempt, an internal army split, or Sukarno's tacit approval — is still debated by scholars 60 years later. But the aftermath was seized swiftly by Suharto (then a Major General).
On 1 October at dawn, Suharto announced a PKI coup attempt and took military control. The same day, he blew up the PKI headquarters and launched a general arrest of communists.
Sources: 30 September Movement · Lubang Buaya
The 1965–66 Mass Killings — Indonesia's modern trauma — In the three months from October to December after G30S, Communist Party members, sympathizers, and ethnic Chinese were massacred across Indonesia. Estimated deaths 500,000 to 1 million — the largest atrocity in postwar Southeast Asia. Bali was no exception, with approximately 5% of the Balinese population killed. The killings have been largely uninvestigated and unacknowledged. Joshua Oppenheimer's documentaries The Act of Killing (2012) and The Look of Silence (2014) shocked global audiences by re-examining the events through the mouths of perpetrators. Sources: Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66 · The Act of Killing
E. The Fall of Sukarno (1966–1967)
On 11 March 1966, Sukarno signed Supersemar (Surat Perintah Sebelas Maret — Order of 11 March), delegating to Suharto the authority to restore security and order. It was a substantive transfer of power. The original document was reportedly lost — with forgery suspicions lingering.
In March 1967, Sukarno was suspended from the presidency; in March 1968, Suharto was officially installed as president. Sukarno lived under house arrest until his death in June 1970.
Sukarno's legacy is assessed as the founding of national identity (Pancasila, Bahasa Indonesia, unified territory) and the Bandung Conference and Non-Aligned Movement, but he is also criticized for economic failure, one-man rule, and responsibility for G30S. His daughter Megawati Soekarnoputri became the fifth president, 2001–2004.
Sources: Sukarno · Supersemar · Mohammad Hatta
Bali under Sukarno
Balinese figures such as I Wayan Wedasthera and I Made Mas Sumantra from Singaraja participated in PKI activities; in the 1965–66 killings, approximately 80,000 Balinese died (Geoffrey Robinson estimate). There are reports of executions organized by Banjar village rosters (see 4.1). This silent trauma is a shadow in Bali's modern history that often remains invisible to outsiders.
Source: Robinson G., The Dark Side of Paradise: Political Violence in Bali (Cornell University Press, 1995)
Quick Summary
| Date | Event | Core |
|---|---|---|
| 17 Aug 1945 | Declaration of Independence | Sukarno·Hatta; Dutch rejected |
| 1945–49 | War of Independence | 45,000–100,000 dead; 1949.12 transfer of sovereignty |
| 1950–57 | Parliamentary Democracy | 7 prime ministers; 1955 election fragmented |
| 1955 | Bandung Conference | Launch of Non-Aligned Movement |
| 1957 | Guided Democracy | Presidency, army, PKI three-axis |
| 30 Sep 1965 | G30S | 7 generals abducted and killed |
| 1965–66 | Mass killings | 500,000–1 million dead (~80,000 in Bali) |
| March 1966 | Supersemar | Power transferred to Suharto |
| 1968 | Suharto inaugurated | New Order begins (1.1.4) |
Sources / References
- Wiki — Sukarno · Indonesian National Revolution · Guided Democracy in Indonesia · 30 September Movement · Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66
- Official — Arsip Nasional Republik Indonesia — Sukarno·Supersemar originals · Komnas HAM (Human Rights Commission) — 1965 Investigation Report
- News — The New York Times — "Indonesia's killings of 1965-66: Three commissions, no answers" · The Guardian — Joshua Oppenheimer documentary reviews · Yonhap — Megawati presidency coverage (2001-2004)
- Academic — Ricklefs M. C., A History of Modern Indonesia (Stanford, 2008); Robinson G., The Dark Side of Paradise: Political Violence in Bali (Cornell, 1995); Cribb R., The Indonesian Killings of 1965-1966 (Monash, 1990); Roosa J., Pretext for Mass Murder: The September 30th Movement and Suharto's Coup d'État in Indonesia (University of Wisconsin Press, 2006)
